Structure
1 Introduction
2 Objectives
3 Meaning of Childhood and Development
3.1 Concept of Development
3.2 Development and Change
3.3 Child Development is an Individual Process
4 Principles of Child Development
4.1 Growth Process
5 Stages of Child Development
5.1 Prenatal Period
5.2 Neonatal Period
5.3 The Infancy Period
5.4 Early Childhood (The Preschool Years)
5.5 Middle Childhood (The School Years)
5.6 Adolescence
6 Aspects of Child Development
6.1 Physical and Motor Development
6.2 Cognitive Development
6.3 Language Development
6.4 Social Development
6.5 Emotional Development
6.6 Motivational Development
6.7 Development of an Integrated Personality
7 Factors Affecting Child Development
1 INTRODUCTION
The study of child development is a fascinating area. It takes us back to our golden days-the playful childhood -full of joy and pleasure with no worry. A psychologist, William
James, said that a child’s mind at the time of birth is a tabula rasa (a plain state), which
develops in the environment. Others believe that a child is not so helpless at the time of
birth in fact s/he does have certain capabilities. Whether the child’s mind at the time of
birth is tabula rasa or not, it is certainly not to the level of an adult’s. This unit aims at
describing how a child grows into an adult, the steps through which this development
proceeds and the factors which affect the development of children.
2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
! explain who is a child;
! describe the concept of development;
! discuss the principles of child development ! describe the different areas of development; and
! enumerate the factors affecting child development.
3 MEANING OF CHILDHOOD AND DEVELOPMENT
Consider the following examples:
! Niti is five months old. She cries when she is hungry, smiles when she sees her
mother and wants to play with whatever is available within her reach.
! Thomas is six years old and has started going to school. He has made many friends
in the school.
! Reeta is 10 years old. She has to do many mathematical problems like addition and
substraction in school.
! Rahim is 13 years old and studies in class VII. He studies many subjects like
Mathematics, Environmental Science, Social Studies etc. He is also capable of thinking
independently and many times gives advice to his friends.
In layman’s terminology, Niti, Thomas, Reeta and Rahim, all are children. From the point
of development, the child is conceptualized in terms of age. A human’ being is considered
to be a child from birth till the onset of puberty, which covers the age span from birth to 12
and/or 13 years in the average child.
The child has also been described as a person of immature experience or judgement. As
such, a 40 year old person is also child-like if his/her understanding, reasoning and judgement
are not adequate. The criteria of judging an act appropriate would differ from time to time
and place to place.
In the Indian tradition childhood is determined by the relationship between the child and
his/her caretaker. A person continues to retain the status of a child in relation to his/her
caretakers during his/her entire life time. A son or a daughter continuous to remain a child
for mother, father, aunts and other elders of that category. This has implications for role
enactment.
3.1 Concept of Development
The field of child development is concerned with the changes in the behaviour of children
over time and explains why and how it occurs. In our day-to-day discussions, we refer to
these changes as development and/or growth. Growth refers to the organic changes (e.g.,
change in height, weight etc.) and is usually quantitative in nature (e.g., Ram is four feet
tall. One can measure the height of Ram). Development refers to functional or non-organic changes and is usually qualitative in nature (e.g., development of intelligence).
Another distinction between development and growth is that development is a life-long
process that covers the entire spectrum of human life whereas organic development
(growth) does reach a point of maturity from which no further change is anticipated. For
instance, you might have measured your height when your age was 12 years, 16 years, 18
years, 25 years and at present. You must have noticed that there is a sharp increase in the
height from 12 to 16 and 18 years and thereafter there is no increase. We also observe
that, increase in age normally makes one more capable, socially mature, emotionally stable,
and so no.
One more difference between growth and development is that growth refers to an orderly
change. It is positive in nature. A 12 years old boy may be five feet tall today, after some
months he may attain a height of five feet two inches, after two years he may be five feet
eight inches. The development also refers to an orderly and positive change, but the
change can also take place in the direction of deterioration.
3.2 Development and Change
All development necessarily involves, some kind of change but the reverse may not be
true. Let us consider an example. A child changes his/her dress, his/her school bag, his/
her play- materials. Do you see any connection between these events? There do not
seem to be a relationship between these events. Another example, a child first learns the
pattern of numbering, followed by skills of addition and substraction. In this case, the
learning of number provides a basis for learning the subsequent mathematical operations.
Both are examples of change, but the second involves something more than the change.
The learning of mathematical operations is dependent upon the learning of numbers. In
child development, successive stages and patterns do not merely follow one-another, but
emerge directly from that which preceded it.
3.3 Child Development is an Individual Process
Maninder starts walking at the age of eight months while George does so when he is 11
months old. However there is hardly any difference between the two when they are 15
months old. There is a difference in the starting point and also in the rate of development
of Maninder and George. Each individual (child) is unique and develops in his/her own
way. Thus the development is an individual process. It is probably not correct to compare
the development of Maninder and George and label George as retarded at the age of 8
months.
It is to be noted that different parts of the body grow at different rates, each individual
grows at his/her own way, and there are differences in the rate of development of boys
and girls.
4 PRINCIPLES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
This section attempts to explain briefly the basic process of human development. It will
assess the role and importance of
i) growth processes and levels and
ii) the principles of growth and behaviour in the total life span
4.1 Growth Process
Child development is marked by three interrelated processes. They are differentiation,
integration and learning. The zygote multiplies itself in different cells and these cells
take on a distinguishing characteristic. These are first seen in endodermic, mesodermic,
and ectodermic layers. The outermost layer, called the endoderm, eventually produces
outer layer of the skin, hair, nails, skin glands, sensory cells, and the entire nervous system
of the body. The middle layer, the mesoderm, produces the deeper skin layers, muscle
cells, and the circulatory and excretory organs of the body, Finally, the endoderm produces
the lining of the entire digestive system, the lungs, liver, pancreas, and many of the glands.
Thus various organs emerge within each layer of tissue and combine into a variety of
systems, such as the central nervous system, the circulatory, glandular, digestive and
excretory systems. The integration and differentiation of tissues follow certain principles
that have been described below:
- The growth pattern follows a genetic sequence
The physiological development of the human being manifests itself in a universal and
orderly process of structural change marked by two interrelated kinds of sequence: (i) the
cephalocandal and (ii) the proximodistal.
Cephalocandal sequence, as the name indicates, is progression of differentiation and
structural maturation from the head, through the trunk, to the extreme parts of the body.
This means that the infant’s brain and head grow faster and reach maturity earlier than
visceral organs. At birth, the head makes up over 20 percent of body length; at maturity
the ratio decreases and head area claims only 8 percent of body length. The extreme parts
are last to mature. In terms of morphological changes, the later stages of life are marked
by the same order. Thus, the brain deteriorates and loses its weight at a faster rate than
visceral organs do.
Proximodistal sequence merely amplifies the cephalocandal. The growth of tissue and
structure that is closer to the center of the body is a little faster than the maturation of
tissues and systems that are located in its periphery. First, whole arm or leg movements
are seen, then elbow and knee joint control, and finally the specialized reaching movements
of the fingers. - All individuals are different
Though to an inexperienced eye some individuals, especially identical twins, may appear
much alike if not the same, careful observation always reveals that no two persons are
identical in any of their observable aspects. Each individual continuously changes in his/
her own way, even when some appearance and behaviour traits seem to remain constant.
Parents seem to forget this basic principle when they expect similar rates of development
in their own children. - Systems and functions of the organism grow at different rate
All systems and organs of the human body have individual, cyclic and asynchronous rates
of structural and functional development. The brain, for example, grows at a very rapid
rate during prenatal and early postnatal stages and reaches its approximately full weight
several years before pubertal changes commence. On the other hand, during the early
years of life there is only very limited increment of the genital organs and system. The
implication of this for learning and performance is obvious if parents and teachers are
clear about which abilities and skills are involved in the production of a particular behaviour. - Unfolding abilities and skills are spontaneously expressed
There resides in the infant, child, adolescent, and adult, a powerful impulse to grow and
mature, to unfold new abilities and to improve them by practise and revision. For example,
as soon as the infant develops a new motor skill or language ability, s/he experiences a
powerful impulse to practise it. When babbling and creeping takes a new form, exercises
may absorb the infant for hours. Creeking is discarded as soon as walking is established.
Thus, curiosity and desire for exploration, for new experiences and for progress in the
application of abilities and skills extend far into the advanced stages of life and usually do
not fully disappear in old age.
- Each phase of development has characteristic traits and features
If you observe the play activities of an infant and a four years old child, you will be
impressed by differences in approach, complexity, duration and other formal elements of
play despite the fact that the play material and situation may be practically the same.
Through observation of each phase of development you will notice that some characteristic
traits or forms of adjustment generally classified as “problem behaviour” are not problem
behaviours, rather they are the characteristic behaviour of that phase of development, for
example, nail biting, asking too many questions, etc. - The development is continuous
In the acquisition of a new ability or skill, there are preparational and manifest phases.
Cooing and babbling exercises are recognised as underlying stages of forthcoming speech
development. Simple patterns of play are practices long before complex play activities
can be attempted. The earlier developments are integrated in a new pattern, and a
readiness for understanding of new horizons is acquired. Since the developmental course
follows orderly sequences, forthcoming growth and behaviour are predictable: - Individuals develop as a unified whole
The levels of biological, psychological, and intellectual growth and integration may differ
from person to person, yet there are no individuals whose bodily functions, mental abilities
or personality organisation lack unification at any phase of development. Certain aspects
of development may be uneven or to a degree dissociated in exceptional children and
mentally disordered individuals. However beyond this lack of balance, a kind of intrinsic
wholeness exists
5 STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
The development of a child takes place through various stages. Although each stage has
an encompassing relationship to other stages, yet it has its own unique characteristic
needs and demands. These stages are as follows:
1 Prenatal Period
a) Embryonic period – conception to 8 weeks
b) Period of fetus – 8 weeks to birth
- Infancy Period
a) Neonatal period – Birth to 15 days
b) Infancy period – 15 days to 2 years - Early Childhood
(preschool years). – 2 to 5-6 years - Middle Childhood
(school years) – 5-6 to 12 years - Adolescence
a) Puberty – 12 to 14 years
b) Adolescence – 14 to 18 years - Adulthood
a) Early adulthood – 18 To 35/40 Years
b) Middle adulthood – Early 40s to early 60s
c) Late adulthood – Early 60s and above.
5.1 Prenatal Period
Life begins with the formation of zygote (the fertilized egg). The fertilized egg begins to
divide within an hour or two after conception, into two cells. Ten hours later these two
cells divide to make four cells, then four to make eight cells, then sixteen cells and so on.
The cells continue to divide till 8 weeks after conception and this period is called the
Embryonic period. This is followed by fetal period of development which is from about
8 weeks when the embryo becomes a recognizable human being, to the time of birth. The
proper development of the fetus depends upon many factors, such as health of the mother,
use of drugs and alcohol, smoking, nutritional status of the mother, stress and emotional
factors. The formation of a zygote is a complex process involving the fusion of father’s
sperm with mother’s ovum. The father’s sperm and mother’s ovum, besides other things,
carry hereditary characteristics in the form of genes. Genes are made-up of chromosomes.
A human being has 23 pairs of chromosomes, half from father and half from mother. Of
23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 are in the form of XX. The last pair in the father is XY and
in the mother is XX, and this determines the sex of the child. If father’s X gets paired with
mother’s X, the resultant is a female child; and if father’s Y gets paired with mother’s X,
the resultant is a male child.
5.2 Neonatal Period
This period lasts for nearly two weeks. During this period the child adjusts himself/herself
physiologically to the new environment, The average weight of a neonate is about 7
pounds and the average height is 20-20 inches. Observe the behaviour of a neonate and
make a list Check your observations with the following list:
5.3 The Infancy Period
The neonatal period is followed by the period of infancy, which continues till 2 years or 24
months of age. A rapid rate of development is the characteristic of this stage. This period
is characterized by one of the tremendous motor development. The word motor refers
to muscular movements. The child begins to gain specific muscle control so as to enable
him/her to do some voluntary movements. The child develops control in sitting and walking.
S/he develops the ability to reach an object with hand, grasps and manipulates it. The child
learns to communicate both through words and gestures. The development of intelligence
is also quite fast.
5.4 Early Childhood (The Preschool Years)
Beginning from the third year of life, the period of early childhood extends till the child is of
5-6 years of age. This stage is also known as pre-school stage. If you observe a child of
this age group, you will find that his/her imagination is limitless. Growth rate during this
period is slower and steadier than in infancy. The brain continues to grow rapidly, achieving
90 percent of its full weight by the time the child reaches age 5. Hand preference (whether
left handed or right handed) is established by the age of 4. The children of this age need
about 12 hours of sleep a day to function efficiently. The development of language is fast
at this stage. Vocabulary is acquired at a rapid rate and the child uses these words to ask
questions about things and people. S/he learns about numbers, colours, shapes and the
reasons for everyday events.
5.5 Middle Childhood (The School Years)
The period extends from age 6 to age 12 years. During this time, the growth rate is slow
but steady. The growth in legs accounts for most of the increase in height. Children learn
motor skills like throwing and running to perfection. The child’s thinking develops rapidly
and his/ her store of information grows at a fast pace. School age children develop closer
ties with their peers. Children compare their abilities, appearance and characteristics with
those of their peers. Comprehension and reading ability are increased when children are
given interesting stories to read. They are better at recognizing emotions in others and
empathizing with them.
5.6 Adolescence
It is considered to be a transitional period between childhood and adulthood. During this
time, the final height is achieved, internal organs and systems reach adult size and sexual
maturity is reached. Girls tend to enter adolescence earlier than boys. The children develop
the ability to think in abstract terms. Psychological disturbances are relatively more common
during adolescence because of the stresses and conflicts that arise during this time
6 ASPECTS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
The various aspects of development that take place in the life of a human being are:
i) physical and motor development,
ii) cognitive development,
iii) language development,
iv) social and emotional development,
v) development of motives, and
vi) finally development of an integrated personality.
We shall try to illustrate the basic characteristics of each aspect of development in this
section.
6.1 Physical and Motor Development
Physical development refers to the changes in size, structure and proportion of the body
that take place from the time of conception. Bodily growth occurs through approximately
the first 20 years of life in humans. Growth is more rapid and more likely to show spurts
during infancy, early childhood and adolescence than during middle childhood.
You might have observed that as the child grows physically, his/her ability to manipulate
the environment also shows rapid growth. Motor development refers to the development
of control over body movements. You might have seen that a child in the beginning is
unable to sit, by the age of 5-6 months s/he sits with the help of some support and finally
can sit without any support. The child’s capacity to sit, stand, walk, hold an object, eat,
write, climb stairs, run, etc. are included in motor development.
Motor development can be classified under two heads (i) gross motor development i.e.
skills involving movement of the larger muscles like running, jumping, hopping, cycling etc.
and (ii) development of fingers, waist and eye-hand coordination. The development of the
motor skills is determined both by maturation and learning opportunities.
For instance, a child is maturationally ready to learn the skill of writing only by the age of
about six to seven years. Expecting a child to start writing at a younger age is likely to
create a lot of pressure on his/her hand and arm muscles which can be harmful. Therefore,
children should start writing only at the primary stage. At the preparing stage they should
be given a great deal of opportunities through activities so as to use their finger muscles
and eye-hand co-ordination for developing adequate control of finger movements.
6.2 Cognitive Development
Cognitive development refers to the growth and change in the mental capacity that begins
in infancy and reaches maturity in adolescence. It involves many abilities such as attention,
perception, memory, thinking, problem solving and intelligence. A neonate is able to see
and hear. But the capacity to look at an object carefully or with interest (attention) develops
at a later age. The child begins to recognize the shapes (triangle, rectangle, cylindrical)
and sizes (big, small) of tile objects before s/he learns different colours (red, blue, green),
numbers (1,2,3), alphabets (A, B, C) and keeps them in memory. The child develops the
ability to store learned materials in his/her memory. The full span of memory, however,
develops with age. The infant makes discrimination between strangers and familiar faces
(discrimination). You must have seen a child reacting warmly to a lady who looks like his/
her mother (generalization). On the basis of similarities and differences the child classifies
objects/events into different categories (concept learning). For example, all objects made
of wood and having four legs can be labelled as furniture. Therefore, furniture is a
concept which would include chair, table, almirah, bed, etc. At a later age the child begins
to reason what is right what is wrong. S/he solves simple and complex problems of daily
life (problem solving). S/he develops the ability to perform goal-directed behaviour, do
logical thinking and manipulate his/her environment effectively (intelligence).
At the pre-primary stage the child’s thinking is largely guided by what s/he sees rather
than based on concepts of reasoning. It is only at the primary stage that the thinking
becomes more logical. But even at this stage the child is able to think logically only with
respect to concrete objects and events. Abstract thinking comes still later after the age of
eleven or twelve years. Therefore, at the primary stage when children have to learn basic
concepts they should be taught through play and activities and not through the ‘chalk and
talk’ method.
6.3 Language Development
This refers to those changes that make it possible for a child to communicate. It also
involves the development of reading and writing skills. The child begins to acquire words
that stand for people, objects and events. Children learn to understand their native language
long before they speak it. Crying and cooing of children are the beginning stages of language
development. These are followed by repetition of consonant/vowel combination (babbling),
such as gagaga, mememe, imitation of sounds; first words (such as baba, dada);
holophrases (single words that are used to express complete thoughts, e.g., when the child
says ‘water’ it may mean that s/he wants water); and telegraphic speech. The telegraphic
speech is an abbreviated version of adult message. Finally, at a later stage, the child learns
to speak context specific language and language having more than one meaning.
The child learns language through a process of invitation as well as through reinforcement.
In order to develop good language skills the child must have a suitable language environment
i.e. the child should have opportunity to listen to standard language, should have exposure
to different kinds of stimulating material which can help the child build up a sound vocabulary
and good verbal expression. It is important for all teachers to note that it is essential to
encourage children to speak and express themselves for which they must be given adequate
opportunities. In most classrooms children are expected to only ‘listen’ and not ‘speak’.
6.4 Social Development
It refers to the ability of the child to establish relationship with persons in his/her environment.
As an infant, strong ties are established between the child and his/her caretaker, generally
mother, father or family members. It may be mentioned that the quality of relationship
between parents and the child determines his/her behaviour later in life as an adult. As the
child grows older, relationship with peers and visitors in the family, are established. By the
age of two, group behaviour among children begins. The horizon of the school child is
more wide. Young children are likely to be more cooperative and friendly than competitive
and hostile. Group loyalties are formed near adolescent age. By interaction with the members
of his/her group, the child develops an image about himself/ herself (self-concept).
6.5 Emotional Development
Emotional development means a state of being “moved” from one stage to another. Out
wardly, it shows itself in language or technology and inwardly it involves three qualities of
experiences, which sometimes are clear and sometimes not so clear. First, it involves
feeling such as jubiliation or depression or anger or fear. Secondly, it involves an impulse
towards some kind of action, such as impulse to hit, or to run or to seek and prolong a
pleasurable event. Third, emotion involves an awareness or perception of what it is or
what it might be that produces impulses like joy and satisfaction; boredom (feeling of
being fed up), laughter and humour, fear and anxiety, anger and hostility. From the point of
view of the child’s social and emotional development, particularly at the primary stage, it is
the development of a positive self-concept. A positive self-concept is a necessary condition
for helping a child to perform to his/her full potential. A good teacher can help a child in
this respect by encouraging the child’s efforts, making sure that the child gets more
experiences of success than failure and focusing on the child’s strengths rather than
weaknesses. A positive approach on the part of the teacher can go along way in helping a
child to develop feelings of self-worth.
6.6 Motivational Development
To the question: why does a child cry? The answer would probably be that the child was
hungry or is in pain. There was a need for food which instigated (motivated) the child to
cry.
There are different kinds of needs. One of them is physiological need, e.g. need for food,
water, etc. The fulfilment of physiological needs is essential for the survival of the child.
Once these needs are fulfilled, the second order needs, which are more psychological in
nature emerge. These needs include need for love, stimulation, achievement, affiliation,
power etc.
6.7 Development of an Integrated Personality
The different aspects of development, discussed above, do not occur in isolation-rather
they are inter-related and to some extent interdependent. Motor development makes the
child mobile, increases his/her range of activity and helps him/her to explore the surroundings.
This also helps in cognitive development. Language development helps the child to
communicate better. It also allows the child to interact with more people. This interaction
involving child’s social interaction, has a significant impact on the child’s social development.
If all these developments are adequate and at the right time the child feels confident of
himself/herself later in his/her life.
7 FACTORS AFFECTING CHILD DEVELOPMENT
The development of a child is primarily determined by two factors: heredity and environment.
Heredity refers to the inborn traits and capacities. These inborn capacities are transmitted
from parents to the child. You may be aware that child at the time of birth brings with him/
her certain genetic characteristics. The genes are made up of chromosomes. Each child
receives 23 pairs of chromosomes (half from father and half from mother). These
chromosomes are considered to be the carriers of characteristics from parents to children.
A few theorists (e.g. Arnold Gesell) believe that behaviour of an individual is totally
determined by the hereditary factors.
The birth of a child is also considered to be a social phenomenon. The child is born at a
place among other individuals. In India, various ceremonies are performed during pre-and
post- natal developmental stages of the child. The characteristics of the place where the
child is born (e.g., geographical location, climate, rural/urban, etc.) and the individuals
among whom s/he is born (e.g. their socio-economic status, caste, class, religion etc.)
determine the development of the child. The development of foetus depends upon the
availability of nutritious diet to the mother, her emotional state, etc. After birth, the family,
particularly the socialisation practices and parent-child-relationship has great impact on
cognitive, language, social and personality development. A group of theorists, known as
Behaviourists (most notably John B. Watson), believe that human development is controlled
by these external factors and they totally ignore the significance of hereditary factors. We now come to the crucial question about which one is more important (heredity or
environment). Today it is believed that both are equally important. Both heredity and
environment interact (multiply) to influence various aspects of development. The effect
of the two is not simple addition (heredity x environment), rather it is multiplication (heredity
x environment). It is not easy to separate the effects of the two since, dynamic interaction
between them is continuous and complex.